Background In many countries around the world, scientists' human rights and academic freedoms have been, and continue to be, violated by governments or by groups that enjoy government support. Scientists have been persecuted for their work, for the expression of their opinions or beliefs, and for their peaceful efforts to oppose human rights violations or promote political change in their countries. Since 1976, the AAAS Science and Human Rights Program (the Program) has been working on behalf of scientists, engineers, and health professionals around the world whose human rights have been violated. The scientific community became aware of these violations during the Cold War when the imprisonment and exile of Soviet colleagues could no longer be ignored. As American and European scientists traveled around the world and communication was facilitated by technological advancements, there was a growing recognition of the professional and moral obligation of scientists to work on behalf of their oppressed colleagues. One of the Program's principle objectives is the documentation of violations affecting the scientific community. The Program documents instances where scientists, engineers, and health professionals are persecuted for their professional or personal activities, including their activities to ensure respect for human rights. The Program monitors human rights violations perpetrated against scientists, engineers, and health professionals, and organizes campaigns on their behalf. We encourage scientists, engineers, and scientific and engineering organizations to work for the promotion and protection of the human rights standards enumerated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) and international human rights treaties. The Program's work is based on the principle that these rights are preconditions for scientific endeavor and should be defended and encouraged as a matter of scientific freedom and responsibility. Under the UDHR, these rights include, but are not limited to:
The Program focuses its individual casework on three main areas: 1) violations of scientific freedom and the professional rights of scientists, engineers, health professionals, students in any of these fields, scientific organizations, and professional groups representing their interests; 2) violations of the human rights of scientists not directly related to the conduct of science; and 3) participation by scientists in practices which infringe on the human rights of others. The Program's guidelines for the adoption of cases of concern appear after the Introduction to this Directory. For casework purposes, the Program defines scientists as those who are members of any of the disciplines meeting the criteria for affiliation with AAAS, or accepted as affiliate societies of AAAS. This includes those engaged in research, teaching, other employment or academic study in any of the AAAS recognized physical, natural or social sciences, engineering fields, or medical and health related fields. Students in any of these professions or fields of study are included as well. Some of the Program's casework also addresses issues at the intersection of science and human rights. These cases may relate to governmental policies and practices that restrict the ability of scientists to perform their work, misuse science to carry out human rights violations, contravene internationally recognized professional codes of ethics, or target specific groups of scientists or scientific organizations for repression. Cases may involve, but are not limited to, issues of academic freedom, restrictions on the right to travel, and infringements on medical neutrality or other violations of principles of professional ethics. A list of the issues addressed by the Program appears following the Guidelines for the Adoption of Cases of Concern in the introductory section of this Directory. The Program also organizes humanitarian and fact-finding missions to investigate human rights-related issues; prepares documentation for Congress, other US government officials, and international human rights groups; and organizes symposia on human rights-related issues. Beginning in 1994, the Program has held a reception at the AAAS Annual Meeting to recognize scientists who, by action and example, have promoted human rights, usually at great personal risk. The following scientists were recognized during previous science and human rights receptions: 1994
1995
1996
Their cases are described in detail in this Directory. 1997
Their cases are described in detail in this Directory. 1998
The Program's recognition of the Ethiopian scientists followed a 1997 AAAS resolution calling for the immediate and unconditional release of scientists who are prisoners of conscience in Ethiopia, including Dr. Asrat and Dr. Alemayehu.
In its 22-year history, the Program has documented violations ranging from the revocation of academic degrees and demotions or dismissals, to arrests and arbitrary detentions, disappearances, and extrajudicial executions. We encourage human rights groups and scientific societies to work as a community with shared interests and values. Using scientific methodologies and expertise, the Program encourages and helps groups to use information technologies to monitor and report cases of human rights violations. One such endeavor is the AAAS Human Rights Action Network (AAASHRAN). Initiated in 1993, AAASHRAN utilizes electronic mail to inform AAAS members and other subscribers of cases and developments deserving special attention, and to coordinate scientists' efforts to appeal to governments on behalf of their colleagues whose human rights are being violated. Approximately one individual case or issue is circulated each week, with all the information necessary to take action provided in a succinct bulletin. The Program has also created an online archive to house all of the alerts issued since 1996. Alerts carry the Science and Human Rights Program's digital signature, which allows subscribers to verify 1) that the alert could only have come from the Program, and 2) that the alert they are viewing has not been altered by a third party. To verify the signature, subscribers must have a copy of Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), a free, internationally-available software package that offers users several cryptographic applications. The Program encourages human rights groups to use strong cryptography, and we train groups in methods to assure that email communications and stored data are not tampered with and that they can not be read by unauthorized persons. AAASHRAN builds on the long-standing tradition of letter writing as an effective means of reminding governments that their transgressions have not gone unnoticed, improving the treatment of individuals whose human rights are being violated, and, in some cases, giving those individuals much-needed hope. As stated by Turkish political scientist Dr. Haluk Gerger in a presentation during the AAAS annual meeting held in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1996: For a brief period of time, in 1979, until the 1980 military coup, an Amnesty International Branch existed in my country. My wife was then a member of the Executive Committee of the Amnesty Branch. She used to bring me addresses of political prisoners in far away countries and would want me to write them letters. I would feel obliged, but still think as to the significance and effect of that sort of solidarity. Then one day I began to receive letters, and only then could I understand that in this brutal world there still are others who care. Since 1992, the Program has published the Directory of Persecuted Scientists, Engineers and Health Professionals, documenting the Program’s casework. In 1992, the Directory contained 321 cases; in 1993, 353; in 1994, 468; in 1995, 524; and in 1996, 609. Each year, these cases were updated by contacting the various sources of information that had brought the case to the attention of the Program and were included in the Directory. As the number of cases monitored by the Program grew, updating the more than 600 cases took increasing amounts of staff time. In addition, throughout the years we found that although many of the cases remained active (the individual in question had not been released; completed their prison sentence; was no longer in danger in their own country, or had immigrated to another country where they were no longer in danger, or had died) the status of most cases had not changed from the previous year. We also found that by the time we completed the daunting task of updating 600 plus cases, those that were updated at the beginning of the process were no longer current. This year, the Program has merged its two documentation efforts, bringing together the AAAS Human Rights Action Network and a revised version of the Directory of Persecuted Scientists, Health Professionals, and Engineers. The Directory differs from past Directories in its content and its presentation. It covers only those cases on which the Program has taken action from August 1997 to December 1998. Forthcoming editions will be published annually. The Directory is designed to be used interactively with the AAASHRAN archive online. It also includes information that did not appear in previous editions: the date of the latest update; the source(s) of information; relevant human rights treaty articles; and information on where more information can be found on our Website. Updates for each case in this Directory were obtained between July and December 1998. The case summaries provided here may therefore contain information that differs from the case's corresponding alert in the AAASHRAN archive. Detailed information, including background about the case, past alerts issued concerning a case, and the address of relevant government officials to whom letters of appeal and concern can be addressed, are found in the AAASHRAN archive. Prior to taking action on any of the cases listed in this Directory, we encourage readers to visit the AAASHRAN Website for additional information and to contact the Science and Human Rights Program for updates. If the Program does not have updated information, staff will contact original sources for current information. Directions on the use of this Directory in conjunction with the AAASHRAN archive can be found in the index, "Using the Directory with the AAASHRAN Website." To subscribe to AAASHRAN, simply enter the AAASHRAN Webpage and select "Subscribe to the AAASHRAN." |
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