Programs: Science and Policy
http://shr.aaas.org//projects/genetics/bgenes/glossary.shtml
AAAS Scientific Responsibility, Human Rights and Law Program
Behavioral Genetics Project
Glossary of Terms Relevant to Behavioral Genetics
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Sources
Affective symptoms: When someone has mood or emotional responses that
are inappropriate to the behavior and/or stimulus around them.
Aggression: Behavior manifested by destructive and attacking actions,
by covert attitudes of hostility and obstructionism, or by a healthy self-expressive
drive to mastery. Aggression may arise from innate drives and/or in response
to frustration.
Allele: One of two or more alternative forms of a gene; a single allele
for each gene is inherited separately from each parent.
Amino Acid: Molecules combined to form proteins. The sequence of amino
acids in a protein, and hence protein function, are determined by the genetic
code.
Antisocial behavior: Acting in a manner that is hostile or harmful to
organized society, especially being or marked by behavior deviating sharply
from the social norm.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder/Attention Deficit Disorder (ADHD/ADD):
A neurobehavioral disorder characterized by an attention span or ability to
concentrate that is less than expected for a person's age. Often there is age-inappropriate
hyperactivity, impulsive behavior or lack of inhibition. There are several types
of ADHD: a predominantly inattentive subtype, a predominantly hyperactive-impulsive
subtype, and a combined subtype. The condition can be cognitive alone or both
cognitive and behavioral.
Autosome: A chromosome not involved in sex determination. The diploid
human genome consists of 46 chromosomes: 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of
sex chromosomes (the X and Y chromosomes).
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Behavior: The response of an individual, group, or species to its environment
or within the context of its environment. The term can refer generally to the
way in which someone behaves or to an instance of such behavior.
Behavioral genetics: The study of the relationship between genetics and
environment in determining individual differences of behavior.
Bipolar disorder or manic depression: A mood disorder characterized by
mood swings from mania (exaggerated feeling of well-being) to depression, with
a tendency to recur and subside spontaneously. Either the manic or the depressive
episodes can predominate and produce mood swings, or the patterns of mood swings
may be cyclic. The manic phase is characterized by elation, hyperactivity, over-involvement
in activities, inflated self-esteem, a tendency to be easily distracted, and
little need for sleep. The manic episodes may last from several days to months.
In the depressive phase there is sluggishness (inertia), loss of self-esteem,
withdrawal, sadness, and a risk of suicide.
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Chromosome: The structure in an organism that contains an individual’s
genes. Humans typically have 46 chromosomes in every cell of their body, inheriting
half from each parent. If a chromosome is missing, duplicated, or damaged an
individual can develop health problems.
Cognitive: Relating to or involving the act or process of knowing, which
includes awareness, judgement, perception, reasoning, and conceiving.
Complexity (in genetic and environmental sense): The quality of being
hard to separate, analyze, or solve, or being composed of many parts. It is
believed that a myriad of both genetic and environmental aspects often contribute
to behavior and therefore lead to such a complexity in determining the 'cause.'
See also 'Nature v. nurture'.
Criminality: The quality or state of engaging in illegal activity.
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The double-stranded molecule encoding the
total genetic information of most organisms.
Diploid: Having a full complement of 46 chromosomes (see haploid).
Dominant trait: Characteristic associated with genes that are reflected
in the phenotype both in the homozygous and the heterozygous state (e.g., only
one copy of the dominant allele is required to give the characteristic).
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Environment: The sum of circumstances, objects, and conditions that
surround an individual. The aggregate of social, cultural and physical environmental
conditions that influence the life of an individual or community. For the gene,
the environment encompasses all conditions external to the gene, including the
influence of other genes.
Ethics: The discipline dealing with what is good and bad, and with moral
duty and obligation. The term can also refer to a set of moral principles or
values, or a theory or system of moral values. Also, the principles of conduct
governing an individual or a group.
Ethnicity: Common qualities or affiliation with large groups of people
classed according to common racial, national, tribal, religious, linguistic,
or cultural origin or background.
Eugenics: The study and application of selective human breeding to achieve
a desired set of characteristics.
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Gene: The hereditary unit of life in a chromosome. Contains a unique
segment of DNA that provides the complete instructions for making a protein
or several related proteins that each cell type (e.g., skin, liver) needs to
create a unique individual.
Gene pool: The complete set of genetic information in a population; the
gene pool includes all alleles present in the population.
Gene therapy: An experimental approach involving the intentional alteration
of genetic makeup to affect a phenotypic change. For example, when a 'normal'
gene is inserted into cells to replace a 'malfunctioning' gene that is causing
some disease or condition.
Genetic code: Instructions in a gene that tell the cell how to make specific
proteins. Each gene's code combines four nucleotides in various ways to spell
"words" that specify which amino acid is needed when making a protein.
Genetic determinism: The view that the development of an organism is
determined solely by genetic factors. This view is not supported by scientists.
Genetic screening: The identification or mapping of a person's genetic
structure. During the process, all or part of an individual's DNA is evaluated
to discover whether or not certain genes are present. This mapping can be performed
at any stage of life, from 'pre-implantation' embryo to adult.
Genetics: The study of the patterns of inheritance of specific traits
and their variation among organisms.
Genome: All the genetic material in the chromosome needed to create and
maintain an organism.
Genotype: Genetic makeup of a specific gene, a cell, or organism.
Germ line: Cells capable of contributing genetic material to subsequent
generations (e.g., eggs and sperm).
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Haploid: Cell in which each type of chromosome, for instance a human gamete (e.g., sperm or egg), is present only once, i.e., 23 chromosomes are present (see diploid).
Heredity: The sum of the qualities and potentialities genetically derived
from one's ancestors, or the transmission of such qualities.
Heritability: A term that describes the proportion of phenotypic variation
among individuals in a specific population that can be attributed to genetic
effects. Heritability is a characteristic of a population, not of an individual,
and is an estimate of the relative importance of genetic influences on a trait
(as opposed to environmental influences).
Heterozygous: Having two alleles of a gene at a specific locus which
are different.
Homozygous: Having two alleles of a gene at a specific locus which are
identical.
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Identity: The set of behavioral or personal characteristics by which
an individual is recognizable as a distinct person (or as a member of a particular
group).
Impulsive behavior: An act performed without delay, reflection, voluntary
direction or obvious control in response to a stimulus.
Inheritable: A quality that is capable of being transmitted to the next
and/or subsequent generations.
Injustice: Wrongful act or omission that denies an individual or group
the benefits to which they have a rightful claim, or failure to distribute burdens
in a fair manner.
Insanity: A legal term indicating that a person committing a criminal
act is unaware that s/he was acting illegally due to a mental disorder.
Intelligence: The ability to learn or understand, to deal with new or
trying situations, or to use reason skillfully. Abilities associated with intellegence,
such as application of knowledge to manipulate one's environment or thinking
abstractly, are often measured by 'objective' criteria (such as tests).
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Justice: Fair, equitable, and appropriate treatment in light of what is due or owed to persons. The maintenance or administration of what is just, especially by the impartial adjustment of conflicting claims or the assignment of merited rewards or punishments. The quality of being just, impartial, or fair. The principle or ideal of just dealing or right action, or conformity to this principle or ideal: righteousness.
Locus (plural Loci): The position in a chromosome of a particular gene
or allele.
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Mental illness: Refers collectively to diagnosable disorders of the
brain. Mental disorders are characterized by abnormalities in cognition, emotion
or mood, or the highest integrative aspects of behavior, such as social interactions
or planning of future activities.
Mood disorders: Emotional behavior inappropriate for one's age or circumstances,
characterized by, for example, unusual excitability, guilt, anxiety, or hostility.
Multigenic traits: Characteristics (phenotypic outcomes) determined
by many different genes.
Mutation: The source of genetic variation. A change in the wild type
(gene) sequence or in the number or structure of chromosomes that may or may
not have observable effect or significant impact on health.
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Nature v. nurture: The controversy over whether genetic inheritance
(our innate nature) or environment (upbringing) determines behavior. Since both
nature and nurture undoubtably contribute to behavior, this 'either-or'
thinking is not an accepted dichotomy by scientists.
Novelty-seeking: The tendency to seek out and enjoy novel, and sometimes risky, experiences.
Nucleotide: A building block of DNA and RNA.
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): An anxiety disorder characterized
by the presence of obsessions or compulsions; having one or both is sufficient
for the diagnosis. An obsession is a recurrent or persistent thought that is
intrusive or inappropriate. A compulsion is a repetitive behavior a person feels
driven to perform. This behavior can be a physical action (e.g. handwashing)
or a mental act (e.g. praying, repeating words silently, counting.) The behavior
is aimed at neutralizing anxiety or distress.
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Phenotype: The visible properties of an organism that are produced by
the interaction of the genotype and the environment. The entire physical, biochemical,
and physiological makeup of an individual as determined both genetically and
environmentally; also, any one or any group of such traits.
Polygenic inheritance: A phenotypic outcome that is determined by more
than one gene, such as many physical characteristics or diseases.
Protein: Substances that consist of amino-acid residues joined by peptide
bonds. Many essential biological compounds such as enzymes, hormones, or immunoglobulins
are proteins.
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Race: A classification of people on the basis of their phenotypic characteristics
that are presumed to be inheritable. The notion of race as based on specific
biological traits is not embraced by most scientists; however, race as a social
variable is viewed as a topic meriting scientific investigation.
Recessive trait: Characteristic associated with genes that are reflected
in the phenotype only in the homozygous state (e.g., both copies of the recessive
allele are necessary to produce the characteristic).
Responsibility: The term has several meanings. To be "causally responsible"
is to cause something to happen, either directly or indirectly. To be "legally
responsible" is to be held accountable under the law and be subject to
legal consequences for one's actions. To be "morally responsible"
is to have a moral obligation, for which the fulfillment or failure to fulfill
is deserving of praise or blame. In both morality and law, one's responsibility
is judged in the context of the ability to understand the nature and consequences
of one's actions and to control one's behavior.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA): A single-stranded nucleic acid that plays a central
role in protein synthesis and gene regulation. RNA contains ribose, in contrast
to the deoxyribose in DNA.
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Somatic cell: Any cell within the body that is not part of the germ
line and therefore does not contribute to genetic transmission to future generations.
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Violence: Rough, injurious or abusive physical force, action, or treatment, or an instance of such behavior.
Wild type: The naturally-occurring genotype or phenotype for a given
organism.
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Online:
(1) Search under "Find Terms" at the National Library of
Medicine's "Gateway".
(2) The National Human Genome Project Glossary.
(3) Medical dictionaries and encyclopedias available through NIH's
Medline Plus.
(4) Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary.
(5) Dictionary.com: an online dictionary.
(6) The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke's
online index of disorders.
(7) Biological
Dictionary.
(8) The
Oxford Companion to Philosophy.
In Print:
(1) Mark V. Bloom et al., "Genes, Environment, and Human Behavior,"
(
(2) Audrey R. Chapman, "Justice Implications of Inheritable Genetic Modification
" in Audrey R. Chapman and Mark S. Frankel, eds., Designing Our Descendents:
The Promises and Perils of Genetic Modification (Baltimore,
(3) Mark S. Frankel and Audrey R. Chapman, eds., Human
Inheritable Genetic Modifications: Assessing Scientific, Ethical, Religious,
and Policy Issues (
(4) Richard Hedges, Bioethics, health care, and the law: a dictionary
(Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1999).
(5) Warren Thomas Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of Bioethics (
(6) Warren Thomas Reich, ed., The Ethics of Sex and Genetics (New York:
Macmillan References USA, 1998).
